Early history

Portraiture's roots are likely found in prehistoric times, although few of these works survive today. In the art of the ancient civilizations of the Fertile Crescent, depictions of rulers and gods abound, although most of these were done in a highly stylised fashion. Some of the earliest portraits of people who were not kings or emperors are the funeral portraits that survived in the dry climate of Egypt's Fayum district (illustration, below). These are the only paintings of the Roman period that have survived, aside from frescos.
Roman-Egyptian funeral portrait of a womanThe art of the portrait flourished in Roman sculptures, where sitters demanded realistic portraits, even unflattering ones. During the 4th century, the portrait began to retreat in favor of an idealized symbol of what that person looked like. (Compare the portraits of Roman Emperors Constantine I and Theodosius I at their entries.) In Europe true portraits of the outward appearance of individuals re-emerged in the late Middle Ages, in Burgundy and France.
[edit] RenaissanceThe Renaissance marked a turning point in the history of portraiture. Partly out of interest in the natural world and partly out of interest in the classical cultures of ancient Greece and Rome, portraits—both painted and sculpted—were given an important role in Renaissance society.
Portrait medals, based on the medals made in classical times, were popular in Italy. Those by Pisanello are particularly fine. During this period the tradition of the portrait miniature began, developing out of the skills of painters of the miniatures in illuminated manuscripts. Artists also revived the classical practice of making portrait busts, good examples of which are the elegant sculptures of Francesco Laurana. Profile portraits, inspired by ancient medallions, were particularly popular in Italy between 1450 and 1500. Later, profile portraits depicted donors, represented in the paintings and altarpieces they had commissioned. Important portraitists include Sandro Botticelli, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci. One of best-known portraits in the Western world is Leonardo da Vinci's painting titled Mona Lisa, which is a painting of an unidentified woman. Perhaps the finest 16th-century portraitist was Venetian artist Titian, who portrayed many leading figures of his day. Italian Mannerist artists contributed many exceptional portraits that emphasized material richness and elegantly complex poses, as in the works of Agnolo Bronzino and Jacopo da Pontormo. One of the best portraitists of 16th-century Italy was Sofonisba Anguissola from Cremona, who infused her individual and group portraits with new levels of complexity.
Northern European artists used the profile format far less often, and very seldom after 1420. In the Netherlands, Jan van Eyck was a leading portraitist; The Arnolfini Marriage (1434, National Gallery, London) is a detailed full-length portrait of a couple. Leading German portrait artists include Hans Holbein the Younger and Albrecht Dürer.